English Alphbet and Their Sounds

The relationship between English alphabet letters and their sounds is based on the alphabetic principle, which connects written letters (graphemes) to spoken sounds (phonemes). However, English has a "deep orthography," meaning this connection is highly inconsistent, with many exceptions that learners must memorize.

Here is a breakdown of the complex connections between English letters and their sounds.

The basics: Phonemes and graphemes

Phonemes: These are the smallest units of sound in a language. English has roughly 44 distinct phonemes.

Graphemes: These are the written letters or letter combinations that represent phonemes.

The mismatch: English uses only 26 letters to represent its 44 phonemes, so many single sounds are written with two or more letters, and many letters have multiple sound possibilities.

The rules of connection

Several general rules govern how letters are connected to sounds, especially for vowels.

Vowel sounds

Vowels can be "long" or "short," and their pronunciation is heavily influenced by surrounding letters.

Short vowels: In a one-syllable word where a single vowel is followed by a consonant (a closed syllable), the vowel typically has its short sound.

Examples: cat (short 'a'), pet (short 'e'), sit (short 'i'), hot (short 'o'), cup (short 'u').

Long vowels (Silent 'e' rule): In a one-syllable word where a vowel is followed by a consonant and then a silent 'e' at the end, the first vowel is "long" (it "says its name") and the 'e' is silent.

Examples: rate (long 'a'), theme (long 'e'), ride (long 'i'), hope (long 'o'), cute (long 'u').

Vowel teams (digraphs): When two vowels are side-by-side, they often create a new sound, often the long sound of the first vowel.

Examples: paid (long 'a'), feet (long 'e'), boat (long 'o').

R-controlled vowels: When a vowel is followed by an 'r', the sound is altered by the 'r' (often called "bossy r").

Examples: car, bird, horn, hurt.

The schwa: This is the most common sound in English and is represented by any vowel in an unstressed syllable. It is a relaxed, indistinct "uh" or "ih" sound.

Examples: The 'a' in apartment, the 'o' in lesson, the 'e' in travel.

Consonant sounds

Some consonants are generally consistent, while others have alternative sounds or silent uses.

Hard vs. soft 'c':

Hard 'c': Makes a /k/ sound before the vowels 'a', 'o', and 'u' (cat, coat, cut).

Soft 'c': Makes an /s/ sound before the vowels 'e', 'i', and 'y' (cent, city, cycle).

Hard vs. soft 'g':

Hard 'g': Makes a /g/ sound before 'a', 'o', and 'u' (gate, go, gun).

Soft 'g': Makes a /j/ sound before 'e', 'i', and 'y' (gem, giant, gym). This rule has more exceptions, such as give and get.

Consonant digraphs: Two consonants can combine to create a single new sound.

Examples: 'ch' in chip, 'sh' in ship, 'th' in thin or them.

The inconsistencies and exceptions

What makes English pronunciation difficult is its many historical inconsistencies and borrowed words.

Silent letters: Many English words contain letters that are not pronounced at all. The reasons include historical shifts, distinguishing homophones (in/inn), and maintaining a connection to related words (sign/signature).

Common silent letters: 'b' after 'm' (comb), 'k' before 'n' (know), 'g' before 'n' (gnome), 'l' before 'k' (talk), 't' in many words (often, listen).

Multiple spellings for the same sound: The same phoneme can be written with many different graphemes.

Example: The /f/ sound can be spelled 'f' (full), 'ff' (giraffe), 'ph' (phantom), and 'gh' (tough).

Multiple sounds for the same spelling: A single grapheme can represent many different phonemes.

Example: The letter combination 'ough' is famously inconsistent, as in though, through, cough, and rough.

Borrowed words: English has absorbed words from many other languages (including Old English, Latin, and French) and often kept the original spelling, even if the pronunciation doesn't match English patterns.

Example: Ballet and debris retain French spellings and pronunciation rules.