The Sounds of English

 

The 44 distinct phonemes of English are typically divided into two categories: consonant sounds and vowel sounds. The precise number and classification can vary slightly depending on accent or dialect, but the following is a standard model.

There are approximately 44 distinct phonemes, or individual sounds, in the English language. They are traditionally broken down into 24 consonant sounds and 20 vowel sounds.

The exact number can vary slightly depending on the accent or dialect being referenced. The following examples are based on common pronunciations found in standard resources.

Here are the sounds with examples:

Consonant phonemes

Here are the 24 English consonant sounds:

/p/ as in pie, pan, apple, happy, hip

/b/ as in bug, bag, robber, rub, lab

/t/ as in tap, tip, matter, cat, light

/d/ as in dad, dog, add, filled, riddle

/k/ as in cat, kite, queen, stock, acclaim

/g/ as in gun, game, egg, ghost, guest

/f/ as in fan, phone, laugh, half, calf

/v/ as in van, love, have, five, of

/s/ as in sit, city, less, face, pass

/z/ as in zip, zoo, fuzz, has, craze

/h/ as in hop, hat, he, who, hill

/θ/ as in thin, thongs, thing, both, path

/ð/ as in this, that, the, leather, smooth

/ʃ/ as in ship, shop, sure, ocean, passion

/ʒ/ as in treasure, division, garage, beige, azure

/ʧ/ as in chip, chat, watch, catch, future

/ʤ/ as in jam, jet, page, edge, giraffe

/m/ as in man, map, summer, comb, him

/n/ as in net, nip, funny, know, gnat

/ŋ/ as in ring, sing, sink, blocking, tongue

/l/ as in lip, live, fell, well, bell

/r/ as in rat, run, carrot, wrong, rhyme

/w/ as in wet, wait, why, quick, choir

/j/ as in yes, you, yam, yellow, onion

Vowel phonemes

The 20 English vowel sounds are made up of 12 single vowels and 8 gliding vowels (diphthongs).

Short vowels

/æ/ as in apple, cat, bat, laugh, plaid

/e/ as in egg, pet, red, bread, friend

/ɪ/ as in it, sit, pig, women, busy

/ɒ/ as in on, hot, log, wash, want

/ʌ/ as in up, cup, but, flood, monkey

/ʊ/ as in put, book, could, pull, should

/ə/ (schwa) as in about, comma, teacher, sofa, pencil

Long vowels

/iː/ as in see, me, feet, meat, believe

/uː/ as in blue, flute, soon, moon, through

/ɑː/ as in arm, father, car, start, park

/ɔː/ as in four, door, fork, board, caught

/ɜː/ as in bird, her, turn, word, journey

Diphthongs (gliding vowels)

/eɪ/ as in age, paid, day, play, eight

/aɪ/ as in ice, my, eye, tie, flight

/ɔɪ/ as in boy, join, toy, coin, noise

/aʊ/ as in out, now, mouth, cow, brown

/əʊ/ as in open, boat, know, toe, snow

/ɪə/ as in ear, here, deer, fear, clear

/eə/ as in air, chair, their, care, fare

/ʊə/ as in pure, cure, tourist, sure, duel

English Alphbet and Their Sounds

The relationship between English alphabet letters and their sounds is based on the alphabetic principle, which connects written letters (graphemes) to spoken sounds (phonemes). However, English has a "deep orthography," meaning this connection is highly inconsistent, with many exceptions that learners must memorize.

Here is a breakdown of the complex connections between English letters and their sounds.

The basics: Phonemes and graphemes

Phonemes: These are the smallest units of sound in a language. English has roughly 44 distinct phonemes.

Graphemes: These are the written letters or letter combinations that represent phonemes.

The mismatch: English uses only 26 letters to represent its 44 phonemes, so many single sounds are written with two or more letters, and many letters have multiple sound possibilities.

The rules of connection

Several general rules govern how letters are connected to sounds, especially for vowels.

Vowel sounds

Vowels can be "long" or "short," and their pronunciation is heavily influenced by surrounding letters.

Short vowels: In a one-syllable word where a single vowel is followed by a consonant (a closed syllable), the vowel typically has its short sound.

Examples: cat (short 'a'), pet (short 'e'), sit (short 'i'), hot (short 'o'), cup (short 'u').

Long vowels (Silent 'e' rule): In a one-syllable word where a vowel is followed by a consonant and then a silent 'e' at the end, the first vowel is "long" (it "says its name") and the 'e' is silent.

Examples: rate (long 'a'), theme (long 'e'), ride (long 'i'), hope (long 'o'), cute (long 'u').

Vowel teams (digraphs): When two vowels are side-by-side, they often create a new sound, often the long sound of the first vowel.

Examples: paid (long 'a'), feet (long 'e'), boat (long 'o').

R-controlled vowels: When a vowel is followed by an 'r', the sound is altered by the 'r' (often called "bossy r").

Examples: car, bird, horn, hurt.

The schwa: This is the most common sound in English and is represented by any vowel in an unstressed syllable. It is a relaxed, indistinct "uh" or "ih" sound.

Examples: The 'a' in apartment, the 'o' in lesson, the 'e' in travel.

Consonant sounds

Some consonants are generally consistent, while others have alternative sounds or silent uses.

Hard vs. soft 'c':

Hard 'c': Makes a /k/ sound before the vowels 'a', 'o', and 'u' (cat, coat, cut).

Soft 'c': Makes an /s/ sound before the vowels 'e', 'i', and 'y' (cent, city, cycle).

Hard vs. soft 'g':

Hard 'g': Makes a /g/ sound before 'a', 'o', and 'u' (gate, go, gun).

Soft 'g': Makes a /j/ sound before 'e', 'i', and 'y' (gem, giant, gym). This rule has more exceptions, such as give and get.

Consonant digraphs: Two consonants can combine to create a single new sound.

Examples: 'ch' in chip, 'sh' in ship, 'th' in thin or them.

The inconsistencies and exceptions

What makes English pronunciation difficult is its many historical inconsistencies and borrowed words.

Silent letters: Many English words contain letters that are not pronounced at all. The reasons include historical shifts, distinguishing homophones (in/inn), and maintaining a connection to related words (sign/signature).

Common silent letters: 'b' after 'm' (comb), 'k' before 'n' (know), 'g' before 'n' (gnome), 'l' before 'k' (talk), 't' in many words (often, listen).

Multiple spellings for the same sound: The same phoneme can be written with many different graphemes.

Example: The /f/ sound can be spelled 'f' (full), 'ff' (giraffe), 'ph' (phantom), and 'gh' (tough).

Multiple sounds for the same spelling: A single grapheme can represent many different phonemes.

Example: The letter combination 'ough' is famously inconsistent, as in though, through, cough, and rough.

Borrowed words: English has absorbed words from many other languages (including Old English, Latin, and French) and often kept the original spelling, even if the pronunciation doesn't match English patterns.

Example: Ballet and debris retain French spellings and pronunciation rules. 

A Letter to God - As told by Lencho, Post Master, and God

 

You can listen to the Telugu Summary here: Telugu Summary

1. Narration by Lencho

I am Lencho, a farmer living in a small house on a hill. I work hard in my cornfield. This year, the crop looked very good. It just needed some rain. Finally, clouds came, and I was so happy. The rain started falling, and I said, “These are not raindrops. These are silver coins!” But soon, big hailstones came and destroyed everything. My crop was gone.

I was very sad. My family had no food. But I had faith. I believed only God could help us. So I wrote a letter to God asking for 100 pesos to buy seeds and survive. I put the letter in the mailbox, addressed to God.

Later, I got a letter back with 70 pesos in it. I was thankful, but also confused. I knew God would not make a mistake. So I wrote another letter to God and asked for the remaining 30 pesos. I also told Him not to send it through the post office next time—because I believed those workers stole my money!

You can listen it here.

2. Narration by the Postmaster

I’m the postmaster of the town. One day, one of my workers brought me a strange letter—it was addressed to God. At first, I laughed. But then I saw it was from a farmer named Lencho. His letter showed great faith. He truly believed God would help him.

He had lost his crops in a hailstorm and asked God for 100 pesos. I was touched. I didn’t want his faith to break. So I decided to help. I collected money from my colleagues, friends, and even gave some from my own pocket. We could only collect 70 pesos, not 100. I put the money in an envelope and signed it as God.

The next week, Lencho came and collected the letter. He didn’t seem surprised to receive it. That was real faith! But then, he counted the money and looked angry. He believed someone had taken 30 pesos from it. Later, I read another letter from him. He had written to God again, asking for the rest of the money—but this time, he said not to send it through us, the post office, because he thought we were crooks! Imagine that—he called us thieves when we helped him out of kindness!

You can listen it here.

3. Narration by “God”

I am the one Lencho prays to. His faith reached me through a letter, sent with pure hope. He had lost his crops to nature’s fury and believed I would send him money.

I did not reach down from heaven with gold. Instead, I worked through the hearts of kind people. The postmaster and his team became my hands. They gathered 70 pesos with love and care.

But Lencho’s belief was so strong, he didn’t question how the money arrived. He trusted me completely—but sadly, he doubted the humans who helped him. He called them crooks. He asked me not to send the rest through the post office again.

I am proud of his faith, but I wish he had also seen the good in others. Sometimes, miracles wear human faces.

You can listen it here.

Relative Pronouns

Here's a table with common relative pronouns, their usage, and example sentences:

Relative Pronoun	Usage	Example Sentences
Who	Refers to people (subject)	1. The boy who won the race is my friend. 2. She is the teacher who helped me.
Whom	Refers to people (object)	1. The girl whom I met yesterday is kind. 2. He is the person whom I trust the most.
Whose	Shows possession (people/things)	1. The man whose car was stolen is upset. 2. She is the girl whose book I borrowed.
Which	Refers to animals or things	1. The book which I borrowed is interesting. 2. The car which he bought is expensive.
That	Refers to people, animals, or things (essential information)	1. The house that Jack built is old. 2. The dog that barked all night is mine.
Where	Refers to a place	1. This is the city where I was born. 2. The school where she studied is famous.
When	Refers to a time	1. I remember the day when we first met. 2. That was the year when he moved abroad.
Why	Refers to a reason	1. The reason why he left is unknown. 2. I don’t know why she is upset.

........

Quiz on Relative Pronouns

Fill in the blanks with the correct relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, why).

1. The girl ___ won the competition is my cousin.
2. This is the place ___ we first met.
3. Do you know the reason ___ she was absent yesterday?
4. The book ___ is on the table belongs to me.
5. I know a man ___ can speak five languages.
6. She is the one ___ I told you about.
7. The boy ___ bag was lost is crying.
8. That is the house ___ I grew up.
9. The day ___ we got married was the happiest of my life.
10. He is a person ___ everyone respects.
11. The man ___ I saw yesterday looked familiar.
12. She explained the reason ___ she was late.
13. This is the dog ___ bit my neighbor.
14. The artist ___ painting won the prize is very famous.
15. The hotel ___ we stayed was very luxurious.
16. The man ___ you were talking to is my uncle.
17. I still remember the time ___ we used to play in the park.
18. He is a person ___ opinion I trust.
19. The teacher ___ teaches us English is very kind.
20. The movie ___ we watched last night was amazing.

---

Answer Key

1. who
2. where
3. why
4. which
5. who
6. whom
7. whose
8. where
9. when
10. whom
11. whom
12. why
13. that
14. whose
15. where
16. whom
17. when
18. whose
19. who
20. which

......

Quiz on Relative Pronouns

Combine the following pairs of sentences using an appropriate relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, why).

1. I met a girl. She is a great singer.
2. This is the park. We used to play here.
3. The man was very kind. He helped me find my lost dog.
4. She visited the museum. It was built in the 18th century.
5. The boy is standing near the door. His father is a doctor.
6. I remember the day. We won the championship that day.
7. This is the movie. I was talking about it.
8. The teacher punished the student. The student was misbehaving in class.
9. He introduced me to his brother. I had never met his brother before.
10. The woman is my neighbor. You saw her at the supermarket.
11. She always remembers the time. She first met her best friend.
12. The book is on the table. It belongs to Sam.
13. The old man lives in that house. He is a retired teacher.
14. That was the reason. He left the job for that reason.
15. The hotel was expensive. We stayed there during our vacation.
16. I saw a man. His dog was barking loudly.
17. He is the scientist. His invention changed the world.
18. The shop was closed. I wanted to buy some groceries from there.
19. The boy is playing football. He won the best player award.
20. The girl is my cousin. You were talking to her.

---

Answer Key

1. I met a girl who is a great singer.
2. This is the park where we used to play.
3. The man who helped me find my lost dog was very kind.
4. She visited the museum which was built in the 18th century.
5. The boy whose father is a doctor is standing near the door.
6. I remember the day when we won the championship.
7. This is the movie which I was talking about.
8. The teacher punished the student who was misbehaving in class.
9. He introduced me to his brother whom I had never met before.
10. The woman whom you saw at the supermarket is my neighbor.
11. She always remembers the time when she first met her best friend.
12. The book which belongs to Sam is on the table.
13. The old man who lives in that house is a retired teacher.
14. That was the reason why he left the job.
15. The hotel where we stayed during our vacation was expensive.
16. I saw a man whose dog was barking loudly.
17. He is the scientist whose invention changed the world.
18. The shop where I wanted to buy some groceries was closed.
19. The boy who won the best player award is playing football.
20. The girl whom you were talking to is my cousin.

---

"What" is often confused with relative pronouns, but technically, it is a relative determiner or a nominal relative pronoun rather than a standard relative pronoun like who, whom, whose, which, that.

How "What" Works

Unlike other relative pronouns, "what" does not refer to a noun mentioned before. Instead, it introduces a clause that acts as a noun itself (a nominal relative clause).

Examples of "What" as a Nominal Relative Pronoun:

1. What you said is true. (= The thing that you said is true.)
2. I don’t understand what she wants. (= The thing that she wants.)
3. She gave me what I needed. (= The thing that I needed.)

Key Difference

• Standard relative pronouns (who, which, that, etc.) refer back to a specific noun in the sentence.
• "What" replaces both the noun and the relative pronoun, making it a self-contained noun phrase.

So, while "what" does function in a similar way to relative pronouns, it is grammatically classified as a nominal relative pronoun rather than a standard relative pronoun used for joining two clauses.

Time to Uncover the Truth: Ending the Practice of Notebook Covering

 

Dear Stakeholders,
As educators, administrators, parents, and policymakers, we constantly strive to make decisions that benefit our students and environment. Today, I want to address a practice that has become outdated and detrimental: notebook covering.
In the past, covering notebooks was a necessity born out of the poor quality of paper and the need for protection. Back then, eco-friendly materials like old newspapers and brown paper were often used. The materials were cheap, easily available, and biodegradable. However, times have changed, and so have our resources.
The notebooks our students use today boast high-quality paper and durable, laminated covers. These modern marvels are built to withstand the rigors of student life without the need for additional protection. Yet, despite these advancements, the archaic practice of covering notebooks persists, with detrimental consequences.
First and foremost, notebook covers obscure the branding and identity of our schools. The pride we take in our institutions is diminished when their logos and names are hidden beneath layers of plastic. These covers also mar the aesthetic appeal of our beautifully designed, school-branded notebooks, rendering them unrecognizable and generic.
Furthermore, the environmental impact of notebook covering cannot be ignored. With each plastic film and PVC sheet added, we contribute to the growing mountain of plastic waste that plagues our planet. This unnecessary usage of plastic not only harms our environment but also sets a poor example for our students, who are the future stewards of our planet.
In addition to the environmental concerns, the financial burden placed on parents cannot be overlooked. The cost of purchasing these covers adds up over the course of a school year, placing strain on families already facing financial challenges. By eliminating the need for notebook covering, we alleviate this financial burden and promote equity within our school communities.

Moreover, the method of attaching these covers, often with staple pins, damages the integrity of the notebooks themselves, shortening their lifespan and necessitating frequent replacements. This not only wastes resources but also undermines the durability of the very products we invest in.
It is time for us, as stakeholders in education, to reevaluate the necessity of notebook covering. As school owners, administrators, parents, and policymakers, we can enact change for the betterment of our students and our environment. Let us embrace modernity, sustainability, and fiscal responsibility by putting an end to the outdated practice of notebook covering.
Let's uncover the truth and pave the way for a brighter, greener future together.
Sincerely,
PrasadVSSN

Games People Play - Eric Berne

 Games People Play

 

Title: Games People Play by Eric Berne: A Guide to Understanding Human Interactions.

Introduction:

Games People Play, written by psychiatrist Eric Berne, is a ground-breaking book that explores the dynamics of human interactions through the lens of transactional analysis. First published in 1964, this influential work delves into the hidden patterns of behavior, or "games," that people engage in unconsciously to achieve certain psychological payoffs. Berne's book provides valuable insights into understanding the complex and often manipulative ways people communicate and interact with one another.

Overview of Transactional Analysis:

Berne introduces the concept of transactional analysis as a framework for examining social interactions. Transactional analysis focuses on the analysis of transactions—exchanges of verbal and non-verbal cues between individuals. By understanding these transactions, individuals can gain insight into the underlying motives and patterns of behavior that drive human interactions.

Types of Games:

Berne identifies various "games" that people play, each characterized by a specific set of rules and psychological motivations. These games serve as social strategies for individuals to fulfill their needs, whether it be attention, validation, control, or other psychological rewards. Some commonly recognized games discussed in the book include "Why Don't You—Yes, But," "Ain't It Awful," "Now I've Got You, You Son of a Bitch," and "See What You Made Me Do."

 

Psychological Roles:

Berne describes different psychological roles that individuals adopt within these games. These roles, often portrayed in a dramatic fashion, include the victim, persecutor, and rescuer. Understanding these roles helps shed light on the underlying dynamics and power struggles within social interactions.

Transactional Analysis in Practice:

The book provides practical guidance on how to apply transactional analysis to everyday life. Berne emphasizes the importance of recognizing the games people play and developing self-awareness to break free from unhealthy patterns. By understanding the motives behind these games, individuals can make conscious choices and foster healthier relationships.

Impact and Legacy:

Games People Play became an instant bestseller and has remained an influential work in psychology and self-help. Berne's insights into human behavior and communication have influenced numerous fields, including psychotherapy, counseling, and organizational psychology. The book's enduring popularity speaks to its relevance in understanding the complexities of human interactions.

Conclusion:

Games People Play by Eric Berne offers a comprehensive and accessible exploration of human behavior and social interactions. Through transactional analysis, Berne provides readers with a powerful tool to decipher the underlying motivations and patterns of behavior that shape our relationships. By recognizing the games people play and gaining self-awareness, individuals can navigate their interactions with greater understanding and authenticity. This timeless work continues to provide valuable insights into the intricacies of human communication and offers guidance for healthier and more fulfilling relationships.

Pulling Your Own Strings

 

"Pulling Your Own Strings": Empowering Individuals to Take Control of Their Lives by Wayne Dyer.

 

Introduction:

Wayne Dyer, a renowned self-help author and motivational speaker, published the book "Pulling Your Own Strings" in 1978. This influential work has empowered countless individuals to take charge of their lives by breaking free from external control and learning to assert their personal power. Dyer's insightful and practical advice provides readers with valuable tools to navigate relationships, assert boundaries, and cultivate a sense of self-reliance. In this note, we will explore the key themes and lessons from "Pulling Your Own Strings" and highlight its significance in helping individuals achieve personal growth and empowerment.

 

Theme 1: Recognizing External Control:

Dyer emphasizes the importance of recognizing external influences that can undermine personal autonomy. He encourages readers to identify the ways in which they may be manipulated or coerced by others, whether it be through guilt, fear, or social expectations. By understanding these external control mechanisms, individuals can begin to reclaim their power and assert their own desires and needs.

 

Theme 2: Assertiveness and Setting Boundaries:

One of the central ideas in "Pulling Your Own Strings" is the concept of assertiveness. Dyer guides readers on how to communicate their needs effectively, set boundaries, and say "no" when necessary. He encourages individuals to trust their own judgments and not allow others to dictate their choices or manipulate them. Through practical exercises and real-life examples, Dyer empowers readers to develop assertiveness skills, fostering healthier and more fulfilling relationships.

 

Theme 3: Self-Reliance and Personal Responsibility:

Dyer emphasizes the importance of self-reliance, urging readers to take responsibility for their own happiness and success. He argues that true empowerment comes from within and that relying on others for validation or fulfillment often leads to disappointment. By encouraging individuals to cultivate their own inner resources and tap into their innate potential, Dyer inspires readers to take control of their lives and pursue their dreams with confidence.

 

Theme 4: Letting Go of Past Conditioning:

Another key aspect of "Pulling Your Own Strings" is the recognition that many of our behaviors and beliefs are shaped by conditioning from our past experiences. Dyer encourages readers to challenge and let go of limiting beliefs and self-defeating patterns that no longer serve them. By embracing a growth mind-set and adopting new perspectives, individuals can break free from the constraints of their past and create positive change in their lives.

 

Conclusion:

Wayne Dyer's "Pulling Your Own Strings" serves as a guiding light for individuals seeking personal growth and empowerment. Through its profound insights and practical advice, the book offers a roadmap for breaking free from external control, developing assertiveness, and cultivating self-reliance. By encouraging readers to take responsibility for their own lives and let go of past conditioning, Dyer empowers individuals to become the architects of their own destinies. "Pulling Your Own Strings" continues to be a timeless resource, inspiring readers to live authentically and create a life of their choosing.